Theories in Instructional Design

Theories of learning evolved from the “students as sponges able to absorb information directly” to the learner-based models promoted today.  A branch of research into educational theory, later called instructional design, includes the development of instructional models based on research and tested methods. Robert Branch (2018) described instructional design as "a system of procedures for developing education and training materials in a consistent and reliable fashion," (pg. 23) meaning learners successfully acquire the new skill or behavior on repeat uses. But how do we know how someone learns? How do we know if they did? How to we know if the instructional design was successful? 

Early models for developing instructional materials were based on the work in behavioral psychology going on at the time (Branch, 2018; Carey & Carey, 2009; Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2007). Many of these systematic models have similar characteristics in their step-based approaches, which have been simplified to five components: Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate, or ADDIE. ADDIE models focus on changing a learner’s behavior in a measurable way after traversing the instructional process (Willis, 2011). Each step has expected outcomes and should be revisited if the later steps reveal problems, all while focusing on the stated learning goal and having a measurable outcome (Branch, 2018). For example, the first step, Analyze, directs the instructional designer to assess the learning need, develop a behavioral goal, and evaluate what instructional experience might meet that goal. Once you have a goal, the next step gives you a chance to start designing the module by stating the objectives and activities, and how the goal will be measured. 

A criticism of this behavioral model is it assumes all learners can respond the same way to the instruction, regardless of their cultural background, cognitive processes, or learning environment. Soon, researchers began incorporating other research theories into their instructional design models, such as the cognitive sciences, information processing theory, and communications theory (Willis 2011).  

Robert Gagné, after using a behavioral approach to educational design for years, incorporated a “cognitive information-processing views of learning” (Carey & Carey, 2009, pp.5) in his influential book, “The Conditions of Learning.” He laid out nine elements of instruction based upon behaviorist ideas in the ADDIE model (Willis, 2011) while adding cognitive elements, like connecting with previous experiences and practicing recall.  

Robet Branch (2018) identified seven elements in common in well-designed instruction modules. It is (1) student centered; (2) goal-oriented; (3) creative; (4) meaningful; and has (5) measurable and reliable outcomes; (6) a self-correcting process; and (7) a team effort.  

The Dick and Carey Systems Approach Model (2009) views the relationship of the instructor, the learner, the learning materials, and the place when the instruction takes place are all crucial components of the instructional design process. The model expands on the basic ADDIE structure by defining additional steps. In this model, the instructional designer assesses the needs for the instruction and the learners and their contexts. It also includes additional development steps, directing the instructional designer to include objectives, learning materials, assessment strategies, and tests. Additional steps direct the designer to check for needed revision during formative evaluations, and complete summative evaluation upon successfully developing the project. Smith and Boling (2009), after reviewing publications about instructional design, found many supported this step-by-step yet fuzzy, repeat-process, yet the process in practice is often separated out into distinct steps or among specialists. 

References

Branch, R. M. (2018). Characteristics of instructional design models. In R. A. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (4th Ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Education.  
 

Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2009). Introduction to instructional design. The systematic design of instruction (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.  

Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., & Kemp, J. E. (2007). Introduction to the instructional design process. Designing effective instruction. (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 

Willis, J. (2011). The cultures of contemporary instructional design scholarship, part one: Developments based on behavioral and cognitive science foundations. Educational Technology, 51(1).  

Smith, M. K., & Boling, E. (2009). What do we make of design? Design as a concept in educational technology. Educational Technology, 49(4).